Technical Field
The embodiments herein generally relate to the field of nanotechnology. The embodiment herein particularly relate to the synthesis of nanoparticles and particularly to protein nanoparticles. The embodiments herein more particularly relate to optimization of an enzyme hydrolysis of feather fibers using RSM for the synthesis of protein nanoparticles from waste chicken feathers.
Description of the Related Art
Nanoparticles are particles between 1 and 100 nanometers in size. In nanotechnology a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with respect to its transport and properties. The nanoparticles are further classified according to diameter. The ultrafine particles have a size of 1-100 nm and the coarse nanoparticles cover a range between 2500 and 10,000 nm. The fine particles are sized 100 and 2500 nanometers.
The methods for synthesizing nanoparticles are categorized into two broad classes: A) Top down approach involving attrition or milling and B) Bottom up approach involving pyrolysis, inert gas condensation, solvothermal reaction, sol-gel fabrication, and structured media method.
The methods of synthesizing the metal nanoparticles from these methods are costly. Further use of metals such as silver and gold makes the nanoparticles more costly. Also the steps involved in the top down approach and the bottom up approach involves many chemical reactions and also requires energy.
The metal nanoparticles also have many adverse affects. It has been reported that metal nanoparticles are small enough to be absorbed by the skin and cause irritation. Further the nanoparticles (synthetic or metal) speed up the metabolic reactions in unpredictable ways. The silver nanoparticles are known to kill bacteria. Further silver nanoparticles also kill useful bacteria. The zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticles have been shown to affect soybean plant growth. Also cerium oxide has been shown to completely inhibit the plants ability to fix nitrogen in the mammalian cells grown under laboratory conditions.
Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or plumage on birds. Feathers are considered most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates. The feathers cover most parts of the body of birds; they arise only from certain well defined tracts on the skin. Feathers aid in flight, thermal insulation, water proofing and coloration that helps in communication and protection.
Feathers are complex integumentary appendages found in vertebrates and are formed in tiny follicles in the epidermis or outer skin layer, that produce keratin proteins. The β-keratins in feathers are composed of protein strands. The protein strands are hydrogen bonded into 3-pleated sheets which are then twisted and cross-linked by disulfide bridges into structures even tougher than α-keratin.
Feathers represent from 5% to 7% of the body weight of chickens. These important by-products of the poultry industry are produced in millions of tons annually throughout the world. Chicken feathers are approximately half feather fiber (barbs) and half quill (rachis) by weight. The quill is the stiff central core, to which the soft and interlocking fibers are branched. Both feather fiber and quill are made of keratin (about 90% by weight). The keratin is an insoluble and highly durable protein found in hair, hoofs and horns of animals. Fibers from chicken feathers have several distinctive features such as: surface toughness, flexibility, high length to diameter ratio, hydrophobicity and an highly organized morphology characterized by its complex hierarchical structure. Further the protein fibers are effectively self-sustainable, biodegradable and continuously renewable due to their natural biopolymer origin.
Despite the unique properties, feathers are largely disposed of by incineration which leads to environmental problems. Recycling feathers, which are source of biopolymers have been the objective of many researches because of their high protein content, biodegradability and biocompatibility.
The protein particles from the feathers keep the original properties of the material without destroying the microstructure, it has been widely applied in modern industries. Some researchers have tried to produce feather particles by different methods such as mechanical attrition and regeneration from keratin solution through crushing and obtaining film, spray drying or electro-spraying techniques. The recovered keratin from feather in particles form has applications in cosmetics, composites, and food and drug delivery. The keratin is used in the aforesaid application because of the properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability and moisture absorption. However long time of dialysis, high production costs, safety and environmental problems constitute the main shortcomings of dissolution routes. Mechanical attrition which involves chopping and crushing the fibers with suitable milling machines avoid these problems, but this method has high energy consumption.
Intensive research demonstrates that the efficiency of the enzymatic hydrolysis depends on several parameters such as enzyme concentration, reaction time, substrate concentration, addition of surfactant. These factors often interact with one another therefore, optimization of the enzymatic hydrolysis process is important in improving the performance of the procedure or method. Unlike conventional optimization, statistical optimization methods take into account the interactions of variables in generating process responses. Response surface methodology (RSM) is an efficient mathematical approach for optimizing complex processes. Further RSM is an efficient method for optimizing hydrolysis process which generates an empirical model for evaluation of the relationship of a set of controlled experimental factors and the observed results. The RSM statistical technique is applied in different chemical and biochemical processes to analyze the effect of independent variables and optimize the process responses using appropriate values of the factors. The main advantage of RSM is the reduced number of experimental trials needed to evaluate multiple parameters and their interactions by establishing a mathematical model while keeping a high degree of statistical significance in the results. The RSM is used to optimize the enzymatic hydrolysis of various resources. In many trials the optimization of the parameters is based on hydrolysis yield for obtained protein hydrolysates.
Hence there is a need to synthesize protein nanoparticles from waste chicken feathers. Also there is a need to synthesize protein nanoparticles from chicken feathers using enzymatic hydrolysis method.
The above mentioned shortcomings, disadvantages and problems are addressed herein and which will be understood by reading and studying the following specification.